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Mother Pelican
A Journal of Solidarity and Sustainability
Vol. 19, No. 6, June 2023 Luis T. Gutiérrez, Editor
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Why are Feminist Perspectives, Analyses, and Actions Vital to Degrowth?
Corinna Dengler, Nadine Gerner, Taís Sonetti-González,
Lina Hansen, Sourayan Mookerjea, Susan Paulson, and Anna Saave
This article was originally published in
Degrowth Journal, 3 May 2023
under a Creative Commons License
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Feminist analyses of the historical dynamics of gender systems are fundamental
to the work of challenging growth-driven political economies, and of designing
more equitable and balanced ecosocial systems. Feminist theories and methods
that acknowledge and support diverse voices, knowledges, and practices are vital
resources for building on heterodox degrowth movements. In dialogue with
postcolonial, decolonial, indigenous, and anti-racist efforts, intersectional
feminisms have been unlearning and disrupting conventional politics of knowing
and action in ways that help forge more inclusive understandings and
applications necessary for degrowth futures.
With the purpose of highlighting advances on these three fronts, this essay was
co-written by participants in the Feminisms and Degrowth Alliance (FaDA), an
inclusive network of activists and scholars that has supported an array of
collaborative initiatives. FaDA’s birthplace was the 5th International Conference
on Degrowth in Budapest in 2016, where a surprisingly large turnout for the
roundtable
Degrowth and feminism(s): Conflicts, intersections, and
convergences between two radical political movements motivated the
establishment of the FaDA mailing list, our main means of communication. FaDA
participation reflects the diversity of degrowth advocates in general: a 2017
survey (Iserlohn, 2018) revealed that members bring varying activist, academic,
household, and professional experiences from wide-ranging contexts around the
world. This essay is illuminated with examples from our own journeys toward
more inclusive and mutual learning across languages, nationalities, cultures,
gender identities, and time zones, all challenges engaged in the co-writing
process. We celebrate the launching of the journal Degrowth as a convivial space
for generating and exploring knowledge and practice from diverse perspectives.
And we push the journal to realize its tremendous potential to foster synergies
around feminisms and degrowth. The main part of this text explores powerful
contributions from feminist thought and practice. We then identify a set of
important issues and approaches advanced by feminisms and degrowth
scholarship, and point to potential for further work along these lines. Our
conclusions draw on histories of movement-building across diverse feminisms
worldwide to strategize ways to strengthen degrowth alliances toward shared
goals of emancipatory ecosocial transformation.
1. Marginalizing exclusions or fertile synergies?
Widespread consensus that degrowth horizons are broadened by the celebration
of plural knowledges, practices, and worldviews coexists in tension with dynamics
that have worked to empower and publicize certain strands of degrowth, while
obscuring others.
In recent decades, some scholars have disseminated degrowth research and
analyses in scholarly books and in journals like
Ecological Economics and the Journal of Cleaner Production. This work has been essential to increasing
visibility and advancing the shared cause. Intellectual genealogies and literature
reviews have often portrayed these authors, predominantly European men, as the
main (or only) founding fathers and protagonists of degrowth, using this single
strand to represent all degrowth thought and action.
Meanwhile, feminist, decolonial, and anti-racist voices from many parts of the
world have been contributing strongly to degrowth conversations and directions
through conferences, graduate courses, publications, and other initiatives. They
have worked to co-construct degrowth communities and movements, and have
influenced degrowth visions, including conceptualizations and embodiments of
pluriversality. Amid growing appreciation of the generative force of these
essential strands, numerous scholars have raised questions about why feminist,
decolonial, and anti-racist voices are under- or misrepresented in so many
characterizations of degrowth (e.g. Andreucci & Engel-Di Mauro, 2019; Dengler &
Seebacher, 2019; Gregoratti & Raphael, 2019; Nirmal & Rocheleau, 2019; Richter,
2022; Schulken et al., 2022).
Rather than call out specific authors who propagate limited and limiting
portrayals of degrowth, we point here to one public representation of the field. At
10,650 words and 132 sources, the Wikipedia entry on degrowth is remarkably
long at the time of this writing (22 May, 2022). Equally remarkable is its
underrepresentation of the feminist contributions that have shaped degrowth
thought and practice—contributions partially reflected in the 70 sources cited in
this essay in Degrowth. Wiki entries are constantly evolving, and some time
before our May 2022 reading, editors added a section on “feminism” and a section
on “intersectional feminism.” Curiously, however, combined these sections only
mention three papers from the wealth of feminist degrowth work that has
burgeoned in the 21st century. The limitation of nearly all citations to publications
from the 1980s and 1990s makes it seem as if feminism was something done
only by earlier generations and suggests that current feminisms are not actively
contributing to degrowth thought and praxis.
How has one strand of degrowth become a proxy for the much broader whole?
Can future horizons be enriched by more sincere and public engagement with
contributions from feminist political ecology, feminist ecological economics,
feminist economics, feminist new materialism, ecofeminisms, postcolonial
feminisms, decolonial feminisms, communitarian feminisms, Black feminisms,
indigenous feminisms, queer feminisms, anarcha-feminisms, anti-racist
feminisms, among others?
2. Power of feminisms and degrowth synergies
Feminist research and analysis has contributed to understanding the roles that
historically specific gender systems have played in facilitating growth, revealing
that the growth paradigm is not merely a dynamic that drives production and
consumption on local and global scales, but to that end also tangles deeply with
gendered norms, practices, and subjectivities. This first contribution of feminist
studies strengthens degrowth capacities to imagine and to adapt gender systems
that support different paths. Human biology, sociocultural practice, and changing
environments continually interact to create astonishingly diverse ways of being
human. Gender and queer studies show how diversity within and among societies
is essential to vitality and adaptation in human history, and also reveal how
currently dominant systems that differentiate people in hierarchical and
exploitative ways limit progress towards goals of care and equitable wellbeing.
The rise of capitalism and fossil-fueled industrial technologies was enabled by
the establishment of violent colonial and racial systems that mobilized war and
commerce to expropriate Indigenous Peoples’ lands, enslave labor, and harness
diverse local gender systems to increase productivity and profit. Colonial
capitalist restructuring of gender norms and identities accompanied shifts in
human ecological relations involving the separation of economic production from
ecosocial reproduction, and the ascendance of a new ideology that dualistically
separated culture from nature, which was portrayed as a mechanism and passive
resource (Merchant, 1990).
The separation of production, which came to be associated with masculinity, from
reproduction, associated with femininity, interacted with other historical
changes. These included adaptations of inherited patriarchal social relations, new
kinds of colonizing states, and expansion of long-distance trade. All worked
together to mobilize old and new forms of coercion and exploitation of labor and
other natural resources.
The emergence and establishment of this globalizing gendered and racial
capitalist society has depended on the periodic expansion and intensification of
its regimes of accumulation, and on new masculinities and femininities through
which crises in the domain of production are externalized into the domain of
reproduction (Federici, 2004, 2021; Mies & Bennholdt-Thomsen, 2000; Robinson,
2020).
State command and control over sexuality and reproduction, witch-hunts, new
misogyny among guilds, merchant exploitation through the putting out system,
transatlantic slave trade, plantation slavery, and forced labor in fleets and mines
operated together to develop interlocking systems of oppression on global scales.
The gendered and racialized class hierarchies of those systems persist to this
day, notably in the continued subalternization of the domain of social
reproduction. In contexts of modernity, thought and discourse about race,
gender, and sexuality became characterized by categorical, dichotomous, and
hierarchical forms that promote the dehumanization of women’s and men’s
bodies, especially in the global south (Lugones, 2010). This system of oppression
linked subordinate forms of masculinity with dangerous and degrading labor,
while linking femininity with the unpaid work of reproducing socialized laborers
and regenerating labor capacities through nourishment, nurture, and emotional
care. At the same time, a political affiliation between some masculinities and the
modernizing culture of racial capitalism has worked to sustain a “patriarchy of
the wage” (Federici, 2021). Challenging the growth imperative crucially involves
curbing the reproduction of masculinities and femininities that are subjected to
and subjectified by this imperative. Creating degrowth futures depends crucially
on feminist innovation, retrieval, and adaptation of other gendered ecologies.
A second powerful contribution from feminisms are methods and theories that
acknowledge and support diverse voices, knowledges, and practices. People in
different positions and contexts are exploring degrowth as a field of research, a
network of social movements, a community of scholar-activists, a way of life, or
a vision for desirable futures. An even broader range of people and movements
may contribute to—and benefit from—degrowth transitions. As Patricia E.
Perkins (2010, p. 5) makes clear, “Degrowth needs to include people from a
diversity of gender, race, class, and geographic perspectives FROM THE START
[sic] in order to build a strong, resilient, and politically-dynamic framework for
eco-socio-political change.” Yet, we face powerful legacies of division and
exclusion.
In contemporary societies, including in natural and social sciences, power
operates through historically specific hierarchical binaries that have been
disseminated with colonial capitalism and globalization, and have been
internalized (or resisted) in various ways around the world. Superiority and
domination of humans over other nature have been conceptually and structurally
interconnected with colonizer over colonized, white over non-white, man over
woman, hetero-normative over queer, capitalist over worker, and nation-state
over community. Structures and institutions through which these divisions are
sustained and reproduced work in complex ways to frustrate attempts at
mutually fruitful relationships and alliances across differences.
Emerging at the confluence of critiques of humans-over-nature and critiques of
colonizer-over-colonized, conversations about degrowth offer ways towards
deeper interrogation of these historical hierarchies. Since its earliest articulations
(Gorz, 1980; Illich, 1974; Latouche, 1986), degrowth diverged from mainstream
development and environmental stances by seeking ways for “developed”
societies, positioned as colonizers, to reduce negative impacts on other people
and environments, starting with efforts to dismantle ideologies of the growth
imperative. Yet, societal projects based on downscaling growth and global
exploitation, even those that prioritize conviviality and cooperation, do not
guarantee relations free of sexism, racism, and other forms of exploitation and
oppression.
For example, although racism has been explicitly recognized by environmental
justice scholars and activists, serious work still needs to be done on the roles that
racialization and white privilege play in dynamics that drive growth, as well as in
those that may support just and equitable degrowth (Tyberg, 2020). Some critical
awareness is activated via alliances with anti-colonial, anti-racist, ecofeminist,
and other movements that address interconnected hierarchies. However,
powerful institutions for production and dissemination of knowledge have been
operating in ways that construe these perspectives as less valid than mainstream
science and marginalize their topics and analyses as irrelevant to economic and
ecological knowledge.
These structural legacies continue to limit efforts to bring voices and visions
together towards emancipatory ecosocial transformation. There is no doubt that
diversifying degrowth movements is an important means towards this end. But,
as the network Diversifying and Decolonizing Economics (d-econ) reminds us,
diversifying is not the same as decolonizing. While the former is important for
epistemic justice and likely to bring other questions and perspectives to the table,
decolonization and decoloniality furthermore require collective unlearning of
Eurocentric and androcentric knowledges and practices, and the provision of
fertile soil in which new collaborative knowledges and practices can flourish. In
this regard, histories of feminist solidarity and movement building, especially
coordinating local struggles transnationally (e.g., on issues of food, land,
development dispossession, and anti-war/peace), offer important lessons for
degrowth scholarship and activism.
A third power of synergies among feminisms and degrowth lies in the potential
for creating new spaces and modes of knowledge production. Degrowth and
feminist proponents share an appreciation of different ways of learning and kinds
of understanding that go beyond conventional western scientific approaches;
some of many journeys on this front are described in “Pluriversal learning:
pathways toward a world of many worlds” (Paulson, 2018).
Feminisms and Degrowth Alliance is a living example of experimentation with
forms of knowledge production that incorporates diverse positions and
perspectives. Venturing beyond topics usually associated with feminism, FaDA
members have organized and joined workshops and panels at international
conferences on degrowth, ecological economics, anthropology, and other
subjects, and provided respective groups with guidelines for feminist conference
organizing.
Continuous experimentation with self-organized collective projects is exemplified
by processes in March and April 2020, when FaDA channeled spontaneous
interaction to understand and respond to situations provoked by the coronavirus.
Conversation among more than 40 participants from five continents led to
collaborative writing of two statements: “
Feminist degrowth reflections on
COVID-19 and the Politics of Social Reproduction” (FaDA 2020a) and
“Collaborative Feminist Degrowth: Pandemic as an Opening for a Care-Full
Radical Transformation” (FaDA 2020b). Commitment to include a wide variety of
interlocutors in the conversation inspired translations of the messages into
Finnish,
German,
Greek,
Italian,
Spanish,
Turkish.
The call for a “Care-full
radical transformation” begins: “The crisis we face as a global community must
be understood not only as a public health crisis, or as an economic crisis of the
capitalist mode of production, but also, fundamentally, as a crisis of the
reproduction of life. In this sense, it is a crisis of care: the work of caring for
humans, non-humans, and the shared biosphere.”
Recent flourishing of feminist degrowth is contributing to more comprehensive
origin stories by digging for obscured feminist roots of degrowth and is fostering
convergences of perspectives and creative alliances. In light of these successes,
and despite them, FaDA members continue to struggle with unlearning those
values, assumptions, and structures that hinder feminist-informed degrowth,
including racist, colonialist, hetero-patriarchal, speciesist, ableist, and classist
undercurrents that unconsciously guide all of our thinking and practice.
Although transdisciplinary research has long worked toward alignment between
knowledge and practice (Gibbons, 1999), it is still a struggle to bridge knowledge
systems in ways that do not reinforce hegemonic positivist academia, epicenter
of the colonial system (Grosfoguel, 2008). Feminisms and degrowth motivate
complementary efforts to move away from hierarchical relations and systems of
knowledge that have constituted the colonial matrix of power (Quijano, 2000).
A fundamental strategy for FaDA has been to create commons for unlearning,
learning, and writing. This is facilitated by ongoing open FaDA meetings and
topical events, as well as virtual check-ins on the well-being of members, and live
gatherings like a 2022 workshop that brought 60 participants from a dozen
countries to Lund, Sweden, to explore feminisms and degrowth horizons. The
toolkit of the degrowth movement can be fortified with similar commoning
processes.
Projects such as this essay, co-written by seven participants from nearly as many
countries, have generated confusions, unexpected doubts, and painful
misunderstandings that prevent linear progress. Moving toward communal forms
of intellectual work, we have come to appreciate ways in which more difficult
journeys can be more fruitful, and to trust the process of writing as a goal and
reward in itself. The constitution of text through the entanglement of our varied
writings/lines/thoughts/onto-epistemologies/desires forges communal
processes of "becoming" that portray experiences of "betweenness" (Sonetti-
González et al., forthcoming). In sum, even as collaboration across differences
multiplies confusions and changes, it has also multiplied learning and unlearning
in processes that have become vital for us.
3. Issues and approaches that feminisms and degrowth synergy
is already advancing and can further strengthen
With the aim of motivating readers to explore opportunities toward further
synergies, we provide here a non-comprehensive glimpse of the rich work that
has been published in many languages and diverse media around selected issues
in feminisms and degrowth. FaDA collaborators are working on a longer article
that will present and reflect on a broader range of literature.
Care economies, commoning care, caring masculinities, and interspecies
care (Aulenbacher & Riegraf, 2018; Borowy & Aillon, 2017; D’Alisa & Catteano,
2013; Dengler & Lang, 2022; Paulson et al., 2022(a); Paulson et al., 2022(b)\;
Tummers & MacGregor, 2019; Winker, 2015)
Crises (war, anthropocene, COVID) (Bahn, Cohen & Rodgers, 2020; Bock,
2021; FaDA, 2020a; FaDA, 2020b; Raworth, 2014; Riquito, 2021; Paulson, 2022;
Paulson, 2020)
Decolonial, intersectional, and global south approaches (Abazeri, 2022;
Dengler & Seebacher, 2019, Mehta & Harcourt, 2021; Nirmal & Rocheleau,
2019; Paulson, 2021; Pietilä, 2006, Salleh, 2020; Svampa, 2015)
Design, technology, and practical innovations (Bell et al., 2020; Gaziulusoy
& Houtbeckers, 2018; Houtbeckers & Gaziulusoy, 2019; Kawgan-Kagan, 2015;
Paulson, 2022; White, 2020)
Ecofeminisms (Pérez Orozco & Mason-Deese, 2022; Perkins, 2019; Picardi et
al., 2022; Saave, 2022; Salleh, 2017)
Gender and political economic systems (Andreucci et al., 2019; Akbulut,
2021; Barca et al., 2019; Gregoratti & Raphael, 2019)
Programs and policies (basic income, wages for housework, green new
deals, UN) (Katada, 2012; Paulson & Paulson-Smith, 2021; Piccardi & Barca,
2022; Schulz, 2017; Zelleke, 2021)
Social reproduction, labor, and invisible economy (Barca, 2019; Bauhardt,
2014; Dengler & Strunk 2018; Salleh, 2017; Saave-Harnack, Dengler & Muraca,
2019; Saave & Muraca, 2021)
Societal transformations, climate justice, and utopias (Aulenbacher &
Riegraf, 2018; Andreucci & Engel-Di Mauro, 2019; Akbulut, 2021; Barca,
Chertkovskaya & Paulsson, 2019; Khanna, 2021; Pérez-Orozco & Mason-
Deese, 2022; Perkins, 2019; Solón, 2019; Winker, 2015)
4. Conclusion
In this essay, we showed three central strategies to mobilize synergies among
feminisms and degrowth toward shared purposes of emancipatory
transformation. The first strategy is to apply understandings of the historical
dynamics of gender systems to challenge growth-driven political economies and
to build more equitable and balanced social ecologies. The second is to support
diverse voices, knowledges, and practices as vital resources for strengthening
degrowth thought and action. And the third is to unlearn conventional politics of
knowledge and action, while generating new understandings and applications
through feminist epistemological interventions. All are advanced through
alliances including postcolonial, indigenous, and intersectional efforts. Degrowth
movements will benefit from placing those strategies at the core of studies and
policies oriented to forging futures that are not only environmentally sound, but
also thriving and inclusive.
Feminist analyses illuminate hierarchical sociocultural systems and narratives
that divide and polarize potential allies, heighten awareness of relative
positioning and power within these systems, and contextualize diverse pathways
and perspectives. FaDA promotes strategic alliances that explicitly recognize the
class, gender, colonial, and ethno-racial systems that categorize people into
unequal relationships, and care-fully attend to ways in which these systems
constrain and contaminate attempts at alliance-building. These contributions can
be multiplied via tangible degrowth-wide support for learning from these
histories, and for feminist movement building, especially regarding the
coordination of local struggles transnationally.
Degrowth advocates agree that transformation towards worlds that prioritize
good living for all will require us to find points of convergence and to activate
synergies among diverse positions and purposes; feminist degrowth activism and
scholarships have prepared this ground. Building more explicit and fruitful
alliances requires courageous moves to ally with diverse feminisms, and to create
new narratives that portray “degrowth as if feminists and feminism mattered”
(Gregoratti & Raphael, 2019, p. 85). By providing systematic space to develop
synergies and alliances discussed here, and by inviting feminist-informed
contributions, Degrowth as a journal facilitates and fuels this process.
Conflict of interest
The authors have no conflict of interest to disclose.
Funding
The FaDA Authors Collective did not receive any funding for this research.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Feminisms and Degrowth Alliance (FaDA) network for the fruitful
discussions and experiences within this network that led up to the collaboration for this article.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
The Feminisms and Degrowth Alliance (FaDA) is an inclusive network of academics, activists, and
practitioners working to foster dialogue between feminists and degrowth proponents and to
integrate gender analysis and reasonings into degrowth activism and scholarship.
The authors are members of the FaDA Writing Collective:
Corinna Dengler, Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria.
Nadine Gerner, Feminisms and Degrowth Alliance (FaDA).
Taís Sonetti-González, Free University of Brussels, Belgium.
Lina Hansen, Feminisms and Degrowth Alliance (FaDA).
Sourayan Mookerjea, Department of Sociology, University of Alberta, Canada.
Susan Paulson, Center for Latin American Studies, University of Florida, USA.
Anna Saave, Humboldt-University zu Berlin, Germany.
Corresponding authors: FaDA, Susan Paulson.
Email addresses: fada-feminismsanddegrowth@riseup.net,
spaulson@latam.ufl.edu.
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"We must end the merciless, relentless, senseless war on nature."
António Guterres, UN Secretary General, 6 Feb 2023
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